Please write a one page summary of Chapter 2.

The Practice of System and Network Administration Volume 1 Third Edition This page intentionally left blank The Practice of System and Network Administration Volume 1 Third Edition Thomas A. Limoncelli Christina J. Hogan Strata R. Chalup Boston • Columbus • Indianapolis • New York • San Francisco • Amsterdam • Cape Town Dubai • London • Madrid • Milan • Munich • Paris • Montreal • Toronto • Delhi • Mexico City São Paulo • Sydney • Hong Kong • Seoul • Singapore • Taipei • Tokyo Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. The authors and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein. For information about buying this title in bulk quantities, or for special sales opportunities (which may include electronic versions; custom cover designs; and content particular to your business, training goals, marketing focus, or branding interests), please contact our corporate sales department at corpsales@pearsoned.com or (800) 382-3419. For government sales inquiries, please contact governmentsales@pearsoned.com. For questions about sales outside the United States, please contact intlcs@pearson.com. Visit us on the Web: informit.com/aw Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2016946362 Copyright © 2017 Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christina J. Lear née Hogan, Virtual.NET Inc., Lumeta Corporation All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Page 4 excerpt: “Noël,” Season 2 Episode 10. The West Wing. Directed by Thomas Schlamme. Teleplay by Aaron Sorkin. Story by Peter Parnell. Scene performed by John Spencer and Bradley Whitford. Original broadcast December 20, 2000. Warner Brothers Burbank Studios, Burbank, CA. Aaron Sorkin, John Wells Production, Warner Brothers Television, NBC © 2000. Broadcast television. Chapter 26 photos © 2017 Christina J. Lear née Hogan. ISBN-13: 978-0-321-91916-8 ISBN-10: 0-321-91916-5 Text printed in the United States of America. 1 16 Contents at a Glance Contents ix Preface xxxix Acknowledgments xlvii About the Authors li Part I Game-Changing Strategies 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Climbing Out of the Hole The Small Batches Principle Pets and Cattle Infrastructure as Code 3 23 37 55 Part II Workstation Fleet Management 77 Chapter 5 Workstation Architecture Chapter 6 Workstation Hardware Strategies Chapter 7 Workstation Software Life Cycle Chapter 8 OS Installation Strategies Chapter 9 Workstation Service Definition Chapter 10 Workstation Fleet Logistics Chapter 11 Workstation Standardization Chapter 12 Onboarding 79 101 117 137 157 173 191 201 Part III Servers 219 Chapter 13 Server Hardware Strategies 221 v vi Contents at a Glance Chapter 14 Server Hardware Features Chapter 15 Server Hardware Specifications 245 265 Part IV Services 281 Chapter 16 Service Requirements Chapter 17 Service Planning and Engineering Chapter 18 Service Resiliency and Performance Patterns Chapter 19 Service Launch: Fundamentals Chapter 20 Service Launch: DevOps Chapter 21 Service Conversions Chapter 22 Disaster Recovery and Data Integrity 283 305 321 335 353 373 387 Part V Infrastructure 397 Chapter 23 Network Architecture Chapter 24 Network Operations Chapter 25 Datacenters Overview Chapter 26 Running a Datacenter 399 431 449 459 Part VI Helpdesks and Support 483 Chapter 27 Customer Support Chapter 28 Handling an Incident Report Chapter 29 Debugging Chapter 30 Fixing Things Once Chapter 31 Documentation 485 505 529 541 551 Part VII Change Processes 565 Chapter 32 Change Management Chapter 33 Server Upgrades Chapter 34 Maintenance Windows Chapter 35 Centralization Overview Chapter 36 Centralization Recommendations Chapter 37 Centralizing a Service 567 587 611 639 645 659 Part VIII Service Recommendations 669 Chapter 38 Service Monitoring Chapter 39 Namespaces Chapter 40 Nameservices Chapter 41 Email Service 671 693 711 729 Contents at a Glance vii Chapter 42 Print Service Chapter 43 Data Storage Chapter 44 Backup and Restore Chapter 45 Software Repositories Chapter 46 Web Services 749 759 793 825 851 Part IX Management Practices 871 Chapter 47 Ethics Chapter 48 Organizational Structures Chapter 49 Perception and Visibility Chapter 50 Time Management Chapter 51 Communication and Negotiation Chapter 52 Being a Happy SA Chapter 53 Hiring System Administrators Chapter 54 Firing System Administrators 873 891 913 935 949 963 979 1005 Part X Being More Awesome 1017 Chapter 55 Operational Excellence Chapter 56 Operational Assessments 1019 1035 Epilogue 1063 Part XI Appendices 1065 Appendix A What to Do When . . . 1067 Appendix B The Many Roles of a System Administrator 1089 Bibliography 1115 Index 1121 This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface xxxix Acknowledgments xlvii About the Authors li Part I 1 Game-Changing Strategies 1 Climbing Out of the Hole 1.1 Organizing WIP 1.1.1 Ticket Systems 1.1.2 Kanban 1.1.3 Tickets and Kanban 1.2 Eliminating Time Sinkholes 1.2.1 OS Installation and Configuration 1.2.2 Software Deployment 1.3 DevOps 1.4 DevOps Without Devs 1.5 Bottlenecks 1.6 Getting Started 1.7 Summary Exercises 3 5 5 8 12 12 13 15 16 16 18 20 21 22 2 The Small Batches Principle 2.1 The Carpenter Analogy 2.2 Fixing Hell Month 23 23 24 ix x Contents 2.3 Improving Emergency Failovers 2.4 Launching Early and Often 2.5 Summary Exercises 26 29 34 34 3 Pets and Cattle 3.1 The Pets and Cattle Analogy 3.2 Scaling 3.3 Desktops as Cattle 3.4 Server Hardware as Cattle 3.5 Pets Store State 3.6 Isolating State 3.7 Generic Processes 3.8 Moving Variations to the End 3.9 Automation 3.10 Summary Exercises 37 37 39 40 41 43 44 47 51 53 53 54 4 Infrastructure as Code 4.1 Programmable Infrastructure 4.2 Tracking Changes 4.3 Benefits of Infrastructure as Code 4.4 Principles of Infrastructure as Code 4.5 Configuration Management Tools 4.5.1 Declarative Versus Imperative 4.5.2 Idempotency 4.5.3 Guards and Statements 4.6 Example Infrastructure as Code Systems 4.6.1 Configuring a DNS Client 4.6.2 A Simple Web Server 4.6.3 A Complex Web Application 4.7 Bringing Infrastructure as Code to Your Organization 4.8 Infrastructure as Code for Enhanced Collaboration 4.9 Downsides to Infrastructure as Code 4.10 Automation Myths 4.11 Summary Exercises 55 56 57 59 62 63 64 65 66 67 67 67 68 71 72 73 74 75 76 Contents Part II Workstation Fleet Management xi 77 5 Workstation Architecture 5.1 Fungibility 5.2 Hardware 5.3 Operating System 5.4 Network Configuration 5.4.1 Dynamic Configuration 5.4.2 Hardcoded Configuration 5.4.3 Hybrid Configuration 5.4.4 Applicability 5.5 Accounts and Authorization 5.6 Data Storage 5.7 OS Updates 5.8 Security 5.8.1 Theft 5.8.2 Malware 5.9 Logging 5.10 Summary Exercises 79 80 82 82 84 84 85 85 85 86 89 93 94 94 95 97 98 99 6 Workstation Hardware Strategies 6.1 Physical Workstations 6.1.1 Laptop Versus Desktop 6.1.2 Vendor Selection 6.1.3 Product Line Selection 6.2 Virtual Desktop Infrastructure 6.2.1 Reduced Costs 6.2.2 Ease of Maintenance 6.2.3 Persistent or Non-persistent? 6.3 Bring Your Own Device 6.3.1 Strategies 6.3.2 Pros and Cons 6.3.3 Security 6.3.4 Additional Costs 6.3.5 Usability 101 101 101 102 103 105 106 106 106 110 110 111 111 112 112 xii Contents 6.4 Summary Exercises 113 114 7 Workstation Software Life Cycle 7.1 Life of a Machine 7.2 OS Installation 7.3 OS Configuration 7.3.1 Configuration Management Systems 7.3.2 Microsoft Group Policy Objects 7.3.3 DHCP Configuration 7.3.4 Package Installation 7.4 Updating the System Software and Applications 7.4.1 Updates Versus Installations 7.4.2 Update Methods 7.5 Rolling Out Changes . . . Carefully 7.6 Disposal 7.6.1 Accounting 7.6.2 Technical: Decommissioning 7.6.3 Technical: Data Security 7.6.4 Physical 7.7 Summary Exercises 117 117 120 120 120 121 122 123 123 124 125 128 130 131 131 132 132 134 135 8 OS Installation Strategies 8.1 Consistency Is More Important Than Perfection 8.2 Installation Strategies 8.2.1 Automation 8.2.2 Cloning 8.2.3 Manual 8.3 Test-Driven Configuration Development 8.4 Automating in Steps 8.5 When Not to Automate 8.6 Vendor Support of OS Installation 8.7 Should You Trust the Vendor’s Installation? 8.8 Summary Exercises 137 138 142 142 143 145 147 148 152 152 154 154 155 Contents 9 Workstation Service Definition 9.1 Basic Service Definition 9.1.1 Approaches to Platform Definition 9.1.2 Application Selection 9.1.3 Leveraging a CMDB 9.2 Refresh Cycles 9.2.1 Choosing an Approach 9.2.2 Formalizing the Policy 9.2.3 Aligning with Asset Depreciation 9.3 Tiered Support Levels 9.4 Workstations as a Managed Service 9.5 Summary Exercises xiii 157 157 158 159 160 161 161 163 163 165 168 170 171 10 Workstation Fleet Logistics 10.1 What Employees See 10.2 What Employees Don’t See 10.2.1 Purchasing Team 10.2.2 Prep Team 10.2.3 Delivery Team 10.2.4 Platform Team 10.2.5 Network Team 10.2.6 Tools Team 10.2.7 Project Management 10.2.8 Program Office 10.3 Configuration Management Database 10.4 Small-Scale Fleet Logistics 10.4.1 Part-Time Fleet Management 10.4.2 Full-Time Fleet Coordinators 10.5 Summary Exercises 173 173 174 175 175 177 178 179 180 180 181 183 186 186 187 188 188 11 191 192 193 193 Workstation Standardization 11.1 Involving Customers Early 11.2 Releasing Early and Iterating 11.3 Having a Transition Interval (Overlap) xiv Contents 11.4 Ratcheting 11.5 Setting a Cut-Off Date 11.6 Adapting for Your Corporate Culture 11.7 Leveraging the Path of Least Resistance 11.8 Summary Exercises 194 195 195 196 198 199 12 Onboarding 12.1 Making a Good First Impression 12.2 IT Responsibilities 12.3 Five Keys to Successful Onboarding 12.3.1 Drive the Process with an Onboarding Timeline 12.3.2 Determine Needs Ahead of Arrival 12.3.3 Perform the Onboarding 12.3.4 Communicate Across Teams 12.3.5 Reflect On and Improve the Process 12.4 Cadence Changes 12.5 Case Studies 12.5.1 Worst Onboarding Experience Ever 12.5.2 Lumeta’s Onboarding Process 12.5.3 Google’s Onboarding Process 12.6 Summary Exercises 201 201 203 203 204 206 207 208 209 212 212 213 213 215 216 217 Part III 219 Servers 13 Server Hardware Strategies 13.1 All Eggs in One Basket 13.2 Beautiful Snowflakes 13.2.1 Asset Tracking 13.2.2 Reducing Variations 13.2.3 Global Optimization 13.3 Buy in Bulk, Allocate Fractions 13.3.1 VM Management 13.3.2 Live Migration 13.3.3 VM Packing 221 222 224 225 225 226 228 229 230 231 Contents xv 13.3.4 Spare Capacity for Maintenance 13.3.5 Unified VM/Non-VM Management 13.3.6 Containers 13.4 Grid Computing 13.5 Blade Servers 13.6 Cloud-Based Compute Services 13.6.1 What Is the Cloud? 13.6.2 Cloud Computing’s Cost Benefits 13.6.3 Software as a Service 13.7 Server Appliances 13.8 Hybrid Strategies 13.9 Summary Exercises 232 234 234 235 237 238 239 239 241 241 242 243 244 14 Server Hardware Features 14.1 Workstations Versus Servers 14.1.1 Server Hardware Design Differences 14.1.2 Server OS and Management Differences 14.2 Server Reliability 14.2.1 Levels of Redundancy 14.2.2 Data Integrity 14.2.3 Hot-Swap Components 14.2.4 Servers Should Be in Computer Rooms 14.3 Remotely Managing Servers 14.3.1 Integrated Out-of-Band Management 14.3.2 Non-integrated Out-of-Band Management 14.4 Separate Administrative Networks 14.5 Maintenance Contracts and Spare Parts 14.5.1 Vendor SLA 14.5.2 Spare Parts 14.5.3 Tracking Service Contracts 14.5.4 Cross-Shipping 14.6 Selecting Vendors with Server Experience 14.7 Summary Exercises 245 246 246 248 249 250 250 252 253 254 254 255 257 258 258 259 260 261 261 263 263 xvi Contents 15 Server Hardware Specifications 15.1 Models and Product Lines 15.2 Server Hardware Details 15.2.1 CPUs 15.2.2 Memory 15.2.3 Network Interfaces 15.2.4 Disks: Hardware Versus Software RAID 15.2.5 Power Supplies 15.3 Things to Leave Out 15.4 Summary Exercises 265 266 266 267 270 274 275 277 278 278 279 Part IV 281 Services 16 Service Requirements 16.1 Services Make the Environment 16.2 Starting with a Kick-Off Meeting 16.3 Gathering Written Requirements 16.4 Customer Requirements 16.4.1 Describing Features 16.4.2 Questions to Ask 16.4.3 Service Level Agreements 16.4.4 Handling Difficult Requests 16.5 Scope, Schedule, and Resources 16.6 Operational Requirements 16.6.1 System Observability 16.6.2 Remote and Central Management 16.6.3 Scaling Up or Out 16.6.4 Software Upgrades 16.6.5 Environment Fit 16.6.6 Support Model 16.6.7 Service Requests 16.6.8 Disaster Recovery 16.7 Open Architecture 16.8 Summary Exercises 283 284 285 286 288 288 289 290 290 291 292 292 293 294 294 295 296 297 298 298 302 303 Contents xvii 17 Service Planning and Engineering 17.1 General Engineering Basics 17.2 Simplicity 17.3 Vendor-Certified Designs 17.4 Dependency Engineering 17.4.1 Primary Dependencies 17.4.2 External Dependencies 17.4.3 Dependency Alignment 17.5 Decoupling Hostname from Service Name 17.6 Support 17.6.1 Monitoring 17.6.2 Support Model 17.6.3 Service Request Model 17.6.4 Documentation 17.7 Summary Exercises 305 306 307 308 309 309 309 311 313 315 316 317 317 318 319 319 18 Service Resiliency and Performance Patterns 18.1 Redundancy Design Patterns 18.1.1 Masters and Slaves 18.1.2 Load Balancers Plus Replicas 18.1.3 Replicas and Shared State 18.1.4 Performance or Resilience? 18.2 Performance and Scaling 18.2.1 Dataflow Analysis for Scaling 18.2.2 Bandwidth Versus Latency 18.3 Summary Exercises 321 322 322 323 324 325 326 328 330 333 334 19 Service Launch: Fundamentals 19.1 Planning for Problems 19.2 The Six-Step Launch Process 19.2.1 Step 1: Define the Ready List 19.2.2 Step 2: Work the List 19.2.3 Step 3: Launch the Beta Service 19.2.4 Step 4: Launch the Production Service 335 335 336 337 340 342 343 xviii Contents 19.2.5 Step 5: Capture the Lessons Learned 19.2.6 Step 6: Repeat 19.3 Launch Readiness Review 19.3.1 Launch Readiness Criteria 19.3.2 Sample Launch Criteria 19.3.3 Organizational Learning 19.3.4 LRC Maintenance 19.4 Launch Calendar 19.5 Common Launch Problems 19.5.1 Processes Fail in Production 19.5.2 Unexpected Access Methods 19.5.3 Production Resources Unavailable 19.5.4 New Technology Failures 19.5.5 Lack of User Training 19.5.6 No Backups 19.6 Summary Exercises 343 345 345 345 346 347 347 348 349 349 349 349 350 350 351 351 351 20 Service Launch: DevOps 20.1 Continuous Integration and Deployment 20.1.1 Test Ordering 20.1.2 Launch Categorizations 20.2 Minimum Viable Product 20.3 Rapid Release with Packaged Software 20.3.1 Testing Before Deployment 20.3.2 Time to Deployment Metrics 20.4 Cloning the Production Environment 20.5 Example: DNS/DHCP Infrastructure Software 20.5.1 The Problem 20.5.2 Desired End-State 20.5.3 First Milestone 20.5.4 Second Milestone 20.6 Launch with Data Migration 20.7 Controlling Self-Updating Software 20.8 Summary Exercises 353 354 355 355 357 359 359 361 362 363 363 364 365 366 366 369 370 371 Contents xix 21 Service Conversions 21.1 Minimizing Intrusiveness 21.2 Layers Versus Pillars 21.3 Vendor Support 21.4 Communication 21.5 Training 21.6 Gradual Roll-Outs 21.7 Flash-Cuts: Doing It All at Once 21.8 Backout Plan 21.8.1 Instant Roll-Back 21.8.2 Decision Point 21.9 Summary Exercises 373 374 376 377 378 379 379 380 383 384 384 385 385 22 Disaster Recovery and Data Integrity 22.1 Risk Analysis 22.2 Legal Obligations 22.3 Damage Limitation 22.4 Preparation 22.5 Data Integrity 22.6 Redundant Sites 22.7 Security Disasters 22.8 Media Relations 22.9 Summary Exercises 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 394 395 395 Part V Infrastructure 397 23 Network Architecture 23.1 Physical Versus Logical 23.2 The OSI Model 23.3 Wired Office Networks 23.3.1 Physical Infrastructure 23.3.2 Logical Design 23.3.3 Network Access Control 23.3.4 Location for Emergency Services 399 399 400 402 402 403 405 405 xx Contents 23.4 Wireless Office Networks 23.4.1 Physical Infrastructure 23.4.2 Logical Design 23.5 Datacenter Networks 23.5.1 Physical Infrastructure 23.5.2 Logical Design 23.6 WAN Strategies 23.6.1 Topology 23.6.2 Technology 23.7 Routing 23.7.1 Static Routing 23.7.2 Interior Routing Protocol 23.7.3 Exterior Gateway Protocol 23.8 Internet Access 23.8.1 Outbound Connectivity 23.8.2 Inbound Connectivity 23.9 Corporate Standards 23.9.1 Logical Design 23.9.2 Physical Design 23.10 Software-Defined Networks 23.11 IPv6 23.11.1 The Need for IPv6 23.11.2 Deploying IPv6 23.12 Summary Exercises 24 Network Operations 24.1 Monitoring 24.2 Management 24.2.1 Access and Audit Trail 24.2.2 Life Cycle 24.2.3 Configuration Management 24.2.4 Software Versions 24.2.5 Deployment Process 24.3 Documentation 24.3.1 Network Design and Implementation 24.3.2 DNS 406 406 406 408 409 412 413 414 417 419 419 419 420 420 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 426 427 428 429 431 431 432 433 433 435 436 437 437 438 439 Contents xxi 24.3.3 CMDB 24.3.4 Labeling 24.4 Support 24.4.1 Tools 24.4.2 Organizational Structure 24.4.3 Network Services 24.5 Summary Exercises 439 439 440 440 443 445 446 447 25 Datacenters Overview 25.1 Build, Rent, or Outsource 25.1.1 Building 25.1.2 Renting 25.1.3 Outsourcing 25.1.4 No Datacenter 25.1.5 Hybrid 25.2 Requirements 25.2.1 Business Requirements 25.2.2 Technical Requirements 25.3 Summary Exercises 449 450 450 450 451 451 451 452 452 454 456 457 26 Running a Datacenter 26.1 Capacity Management 26.1.1 Rack Space 26.1.2 Power 26.1.3 Wiring 26.1.4 Network and Console 26.2 Life-Cycle Management 26.2.1 Installation 26.2.2 Moves, Adds, and Changes 26.2.3 Maintenance 26.2.4 Decommission 26.3 Patch Cables 26.4 Labeling 26.4.1 Labeling Rack Location 26.4.2 Labeling Patch Cables 26.4.3 Labeling Network Equipment 459 459 461 462 464 465 465 465 466 466 467 468 471 471 471 474 xxii Contents 26.5 26.6 26.7 Console Access Workbench Tools and Supplies 26.7.1 Tools 26.7.2 Spares and Supplies 26.7.3 Parking Spaces 26.8 Summary Exercises Part VI 475 476 477 478 478 480 480 481 Helpdesks and Support 483 27 Customer Support 27.1 Having a Helpdesk 27.2 Offering a Friendly Face 27.3 Reflecting Corporate Culture 27.4 Having Enough Staff 27.5 Defining Scope of Support 27.6 Specifying How to Get Help 27.7 Defining Processes for Staff 27.8 Establishing an Escalation Process 27.9 Defining “Emergency” in Writing 27.10 Supplying Request-Tracking Software 27.11 Statistical Improvements 27.12 After-Hours and 24/7 Coverage 27.13 Better Advertising for the Helpdesk 27.14 Different Helpdesks for Different Needs 27.15 Summary Exercises 485 485 488 488 488 490 493 493 494 495 496 498 499 500 501 502 503 28 Handling an Incident Report 28.1 Process Overview 28.2 Phase A—Step 1: The Greeting 28.3 Phase B: Problem Identification 28.3.1 Step 2: Problem Classification 28.3.2 Step 3: Problem Statement 28.3.3 Step 4: Problem Verification 505 506 508 509 510 511 513 Contents 28.4 xxiii Phase C: Planning and Execution 28.4.1 Step 5: Solution Proposals 28.4.2 Step 6: Solution Selection 28.4.3 Step 7: Execution 28.5 Phase D: Verification 28.5.1 Step 8: Craft Verification 28.5.2 Step 9: Customer Verification/Closing 28.6 Perils of Skipping a Step 28.7 Optimizing Customer Care 28.7.1 Model-Based Training 28.7.2 Holistic Improvement 28.7.3 Increased Customer Familiarity 28.7.4 Special Announcements for Major Outages 28.7.5 Trend Analysis 28.7.6 Customers Who Know the Process 28.7.7 An Architecture That Reflects the Process 28.8 Summary Exercises 515 515 516 517 518 518 519 519 521 521 522 522 522 523 524 525 525 527 29 Debugging 29.1 Understanding the Customer’s Problem 29.2 Fixing the Cause, Not the Symptom 29.3 Being Systematic 29.4 Having the Right Tools 29.4.1 Training Is the Most Important Tool 29.4.2 Understanding the Underlying Technology 29.4.3 Choosing the Right Tools 29.4.4 Evaluating Tools 29.5 End-to-End Understanding of the System 29.6 Summary Exercises 529 529 531 532 533 534 534 535 537 538 540 540 30 Fixing Things Once 30.1 Story: The Misconfigured Servers 30.2 Avoiding Temporary Fixes 30.3 Learn from Carpenters 30.4 Automation 541 541 543 545 547 xxiv 31 Contents 30.5 Summary Exercises 549 550 Documentation 31.1 What to Document 31.2 A Simple Template for Getting Started 31.3 Easy Sources for Documentation 31.3.1 Saving Screenshots 31.3.2 Capturing the Command Line 31.3.3 Leveraging Email 31.3.4 Mining the Ticket System 31.4 The Power of Checklists 31.5 Wiki Systems 31.6 Findability 31.7 Roll-Out Issues 31.8 A Content-Management System 31.9 A Culture of Respect 31.10 Taxonomy and Structure 31.11 Additional Documentation Uses 31.12 Off-Site Links 31.13 Summary Exercises 551 552 553 554 554 554 555 555 556 557 559 559 560 561 561 562 562 563 564 Part VII Change Processes 32 Change Management 32.1 Change Review Boards 32.2 Process Overview 32.3 Change Proposals 32.4 Change Classifications 32.5 Risk Discovery and Quantification 32.6 Technical Planning 32.7 Scheduling 32.8 Communication 32.9 Tiered Change Review Boards 32.10 Change Freezes 565 567 568 570 570 571 572 573 574 576 578 579 Contents 32.11 Team Change Management 32.11.1 Changes Before Weekends 32.11.2 Preventing Injured Toes 32.11.3 Revision History 32.12 Starting with Git 32.13 Summary Exercises 33 Server Upgrades 33.1 The Upgrade Process 33.2 Step 1: Develop a Service Checklist 33.3 Step 2: Verify Software Compatibility 33.3.1 Upgrade the Software Before the OS 33.3.2 Upgrade the Software After the OS 33.3.3 Postpone the Upgrade or Change the Software 33.4 Step 3: Develop Verification Tests 33.5 Step 4: Choose an Upgrade Strategy 33.5.1 Speed 33.5.2 Risk 33.5.3 End-User Disruption 33.5.4 Effort 33.6 Step 5: Write a Detailed Implementation Plan 33.6.1 Adding Services During the Upgrade 33.6.2 Removing Services During the Upgrade 33.6.3 Old and New Versions on the Same Machine 33.6.4 Performing a Dress Rehearsal 33.7 Step 6: Write a Backout Plan 33.8 Step 7: Select a Maintenance Window 33.9 Step 8: Announce the Upgrade 33.10 Step 9: Execute the Tests 33.11 Step 10: Lock Out Customers 33.12 Step 11: Do the Upgrade with Someone 33.13 Step 12: Test Your Work 33.14 Step 13: If All Else Fails, Back Out 33.15 Step 14: Restore Access to Customers 33.16 Step 15: Communicate Completion/Backout xxv 581 581 583 583 583 585 585 587 587 588 591 591 592 592 592 595 596 597 597 597 598 598 598 599 599 600 600 602 603 604 605 605 605 606 606 xxvi 34 Contents 33.17 Summary Exercises 608 610 Maintenance Windows 34.1 Process Overview 34.2 Getting Management Buy-In 34.3 Scheduling Maintenance Windows 34.4 Planning Maintenance Tasks 34.5 Selecting a Flight Director 34.6 Managing Change Proposals 34.6.1 Sample Change Proposal: SecurID Server Upgrade 34.6.2 Sample Change Proposal: Storage Migration 34.7 Developing the Master Plan 34.8 Disabling Access 34.9 Ensuring Mechanics and Coordination 34.9.1 Shutdown/Boot Sequence 34.9.2 KVM, Console Service, and LOM 34.9.3 Communications 34.10 Change Completion Deadlines 34.11 Comprehensive System Testing 34.12 Post-maintenance Communication 34.13 Reenabling Remote Access 34.14 Be Visible the Next Morning 34.15 Postmortem 34.16 Mentoring a New Flight Director 34.17 Trending of Historical Data 34.18 Providing Limited Availability 34.19 High-Availability Sites 34.19.1 The Similarities 34.19.2 The Differences 34.20 Summary Exercises 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 622 625 625 628 628 630 631 631 631 632 632 633 634 634 635 636 637 35 Centralization Overview 35.1 Rationale for Reorganizing 35.1.1 Rationale for Centralization 35.1.2 Rationale for Decentralization 639 640 640 640 Contents 35.2 Approaches and Hybrids 35.3 Summary Exercises xxvii 642 643 644 36 Centralization Recommendations 36.1 Architecture 36.2 Security 36.2.1 Authorization 36.2.2 Extranet Connections 36.2.3 Data Leakage Prevention 36.3 Infrastructure 36.3.1 Datacenters 36.3.2 Networking 36.3.3 IP Address Space Management 36.3.4 Namespace Management 36.3.5 Communications 36.3.6 Data Management 36.3.7 Monitoring 36.3.8 Logging 36.4 Support 36.4.1 Helpdesk 36.4.2 End-User Support 36.5 Purchasing 36.6 Lab Environments 36.7 Summary Exercises 645 645 645 646 647 648 648 649 649 650 650 651 652 653 653 654 654 655 655 656 656 657 37 Centralizing a Service 37.1 Understand the Current Solution 37.2 Make a Detailed Plan 37.3 Get Management Support 37.4 Fix the Problems 37.5 Provide an Excellent Service 37.6 Start Slowly 37.7 Look for Low-Hanging Fruit 37.8 When to Decentralize 37.9 Managing Decentralized Services 659 660 661 662 662 663 663 664 665 666 xxviii Contents 37.10 Summary Exercises Part VIII Service Recommendations 667 668 669 38 Service Monitoring 38.1 Types of Monitoring 38.2 Building a Monitoring System 38.3 Historical Monitoring 38.3.1 Gathering the Data 38.3.2 Storing the Data 38.3.3 Viewing the Data 38.4 Real-Time Monitoring 38.4.1 SNMP 38.4.2 Log Processing 38.4.3 Alerting Mechanism 38.4.4 Escalation 38.4.5 Active Monitoring Systems 38.5 Scaling 38.5.1 Prioritization 38.5.2 Cascading Alerts 38.5.3 Coordination 38.6 Centralization and Accessibility 38.7 Pervasive Monitoring 38.8 End-to-End Tests 38.9 Application Response Time Monitoring 38.10 Compliance Monitoring 38.11 Meta-monitoring 38.12 Summary Exercises 671 672 673 674 674 675 675 676 677 679 679 682 682 684 684 684 685 685 686 687 688 689 690 690 691 39 Namespaces 39.1 What Is a Namespace? 39.2 Basic Rules of Namespaces 39.3 Defining Names 39.4 Merging Namespaces 693 693 694 694 698 Contents 39.5 39.6 39.7 Life-Cycle Management Reuse Usage 39.7.1 Scope 39.7.2 Consistency 39.7.3 Authority 39.8 Federated Identity 39.9 Summary Exercises xxix 699 700 701 701 704 706 708 709 710 40 Nameservices 40.1 Nameservice Data 40.1.1 Data 40.1.2 Consistency 40.1.3 Authority 40.1.4 Capacity and Scaling 40.2 Reliability 40.2.1 DNS 40.2.2 DHCP 40.2.3 LDAP 40.2.4 Authentication 40.2.5 Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting 40.2.6 Databases 40.3 Access Policy 40.4 Change Policies 40.5 Change Procedures 40.5.1 Automation 40.5.2 Self-Service Automation 40.6 Centralized Management 40.7 Summary Exercises 711 711 712 712 713 713 714 714 717 718 719 719 720 721 723 724 725 725 726 728 728 41 Email Service 41.1 Privacy Policy 41.2 Namespaces 41.3 Reliability 41.4 Simplicity 729 730 730 731 733 xxx 42 Contents 41.5 Spam and Virus Blocking 41.6 Generality 41.7 Automation 41.8 Monitoring 41.9 Redundancy 41.10 Scaling 41.11 Security Issues 41.12 Encryption 41.13 Email Retention Policy 41.14 Communication 41.15 High-Volume List Processing 41.16 Summary Exercises 735 736 737 738 738 739 742 743 743 744 745 746 747 Print Service 42.1 Level of Centralization 42.2 Print Architecture Policy 42.3 Documentation 42.4 Monitoring 42.5 Environmental Issues 42.6 Shredding 42.7 Summary Exercises 749 750 751 754 755 756 757 758 758 43 Data Storage 43.1 Terminology 43.1.1 Key Individual Disk Components 43.1.2 RAID 43.1.3 Volumes and File Systems 43.1.4 Directly Attached Storage 43.1.5 Network-Attached Storage 43.1.6 Storage-Area Networks 43.2 Managing Storage 43.2.1 Reframing Storage as a Community Resource 43.2.2 Conducting a Storage-Needs Assessment 43.2.3 Mapping Groups onto Storage Infrastructure 43.2.4 Developing an Inventory and Spares Policy 759 760 760 761 763 764 764 764 765 765 766 768 769 Contents 43.2.5 Planning for Future Storage 43.2.6 Establishing Storage Standards 43.3 Storage as a Service 43.3.1 A Storage SLA 43.3.2 Reliability 43.3.3 Backups 43.3.4 Monitoring 43.3.5 SAN Caveats 43.4 Performance 43.4.1 RAID and Performance 43.4.2 NAS and Performance 43.4.3 SSDs and Performance 43.4.4 SANs and Performance 43.4.5 Pipeline Optimization 43.5 Evaluating New Storage Solutions 43.5.1 Drive Speed 43.5.2 Fragmentation 43.5.3 Storage Limits: Disk Access Density Gap 43.5.4 Continuous Data Protection 43.6 Common Data Storage Problems 43.6.1 Large Physical Infrastructure 43.6.2 Timeouts 43.6.3 Saturation Behavior 43.7 Summary Exercises 44 Backup and Restore 44.1 Getting Started 44.2 Reasons for Restores 44.2.1 Accidental File Deletion 44.2.2 Disk Failure 44.2.3 Archival Purposes 44.2.4 Perform Fire Drills 44.3 Corporate Guidelines 44.4 A Data-Recovery SLA and Policy 44.5 The Backup Schedule xxxi 770 771 772 773 773 775 777 779 780 780 781 782 782 783 784 785 785 786 787 787 788 788 789 789 790 793 794 795 796 797 797 798 799 800 801 xxxii Contents 44.6 Time and Capacity Planning 44.6.1 Backup Speed 44.6.2 Restore Speed 44.6.3 High-Availability Databases 44.7 Consumables Planning 44.7.1 Tape Inventory 44.7.2 Backup Media and Off-Site Storage 44.8 Restore-Process Issues 44.9 Backup Automation 44.10 Centralization 44.11 Technology Changes 44.12 Summary Exercises 807 807 808 809 809 811 812 815 816 819 820 821 822 45 Software Repositories 45.1 Types of Repositories 45.2 Benefits of Repositories 45.3 Package Management Systems 45.4 Anatomy of a Package 45.4.1 Metadata and Scripts 45.4.2 Active Versus Dormant Installation 45.4.3 Binary Packages 45.4.4 Library Packages 45.4.5 Super-Packages 45.4.6 Source Packages 45.5 Anatomy of a Repository 45.5.1 Security 45.5.2 Universal Access 45.5.3 Release Process 45.5.4 Multitiered Mirrors and Caches 45.6 Managing a Repository 45.6.1 Repackaging Public Packages 45.6.2 Repackaging Third-Party Software 825 826 827 829 829 830 830 831 831 831 832 833 834 835 836 836 837 838 839 Contents 45.6.3 Service and Support 45.6.4 Repository as a Service 45.7 Repository Client 45.7.1 Version Management 45.7.2 Tracking Conflicts 45.8 Build Environment 45.8.1 Continuous Integration 45.8.2 Hermetic Build 45.9 Repository Examples 45.9.1 Staged Software Repository 45.9.2 OS Mirror 45.9.3 Controlled OS Mirror 45.10 Summary Exercises 46 Web Services 46.1 Simple Web Servers 46.2 Multiple Web Servers on One Host 46.2.1 Scalable Techniques 46.2.2 HTTPS 46.3 Service Level Agreements 46.4 Monitoring 46.5 Scaling for Web Services 46.5.1 Horizontal Scaling 46.5.2 Vertical Scaling 46.5.3 Choosing a Scaling Method 46.6 Web Service Security 46.6.1 Secure Connections and Certificates 46.6.2 Protecting the Web Server Application 46.6.3 Protecting the Content 46.6.4 Application Security 46.7 Content Management 46.8 Summary Exercises xxxiii 839 840 841 841 843 843 844 844 845 845 847 847 848 849 851 852 853 853 854 854 855 855 856 857 858 859 860 862 863 864 866 868 869 xxxiv Contents Part IX Management Practices 871 47 Ethics 47.1 Informed Consent 47.2 Code of Ethics 47.3 Customer Usage Guidelines 47.4 Privileged-Access Code of Conduct 47.5 Copyright Adherence 47.6 Working with Law Enforcement 47.7 Setting Expectations on Privacy and Monitoring 47.8 Being Told to Do Something Illegal/Unethical 47.9 Observing Illegal Activity 47.10 Summary Exercises 873 873 875 875 877 878 881 885 887 888 889 889 48 Organizational Structures 48.1 Sizing 48.2 Funding Models 48.3 Management Chain’s Influence 48.4 Skill Selection 48.5 Infrastructure Teams 48.6 Customer Support 48.7 Helpdesk 48.8 Outsourcing 48.9 Consultants and Contractors 48.10 Sample Organizational Structures 48.10.1 Small Company 48.10.2 Medium-Size Company 48.10.3 Large Company 48.10.4 E-commerce Site 48.10.5 Universities and Nonprofit Organizations 48.11 Summary Exercises 891 892 894 897 898 900 902 904 904 906 907 908 908 908 909 909 911 911 49 Perception and Visibility 49.1 Perception 49.1.1 A Good First Impression 49.1.2 Attitude, Perception, and Customers 913 913 914 918 Contents 49.1.3 Aligning Priorities with Customer Expectations 49.1.4 The System Advocate 49.2 Visibility 49.2.1 System Status Web Page 49.2.2 Management Meetings 49.2.3 Physical Visibility 49.2.4 Town Hall Meetings 49.2.5 Newsletters 49.2.6 Mail to All Customers 49.2.7 Lunch 49.3 Summary Exercises xxxv 920 921 925 925 926 927 927 930 930 932 933 934 50 Time Management 50.1 Interruptions 50.1.1 Stay Focused 50.1.2 Splitting Your Day 50.2 Follow-Through 50.3 Basic To-Do List Management 50.4 Setting Goals 50.5 Handling Email Once 50.6 Precompiling Decisions 50.7 Finding Free Time 50.8 Dealing with Ineffective People 50.9 Dealin

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