Capstone Research Thesis/Project

1 Capstone Research Thesis/Project Title: Fueling Success: The Essential Role of Nutrition Leadership in Athletic Performance Antoine Laigle The Catherine T. MacArthur School of Leadership Department of Ethics and Organizational Studies Palm Beach Atlantic University. EOB 5093 Al Ochasi, Ph. D 2 Introduction: Energy levels, recovery times, strength, endurance, and general health are all impacted by nutrition, which is why it is so crucial to sports performance. First, we will examine how a healthy diet gives athletes the energy to compete and train optimally. For any athletic performance, an in-depth understanding of the timing of nutrients is essential. Timing one’s nutritional intake has a significant effect on performance. Pre-event nutrition ensures athletes have enough energy for practice or competition, and post-event nutrition promotes muscle solubility, glycogen resupply, and general recovery. To undertake an informed research study, I will primarily discuss my sports, cross country, and track, as I am more knowledgeable about them. In my experience with endurance sports, Intense training has been shown to momentarily suppress the immune system, which increases an athlete’s susceptibility to disease. Sufficient intake of vitamins and minerals, especially zinc, vitamin C, and vitamin D, is essential for boosting immune system performance and lowering the risk of disease or infection, which helps counteract these negative consequences. This paper will also examine how an enhanced diet could boost mental health. Diet directly affects mood, mental clarity, attention, and physical performance. Athletes should consume a balanced diet that includes essential vitamins, minerals, and recommended nutrients to promote cognitive function, improve concentration, and increase focus throughout training and competition. Nutrition Leadership is more than just nutritional advice; it is a comprehensive strategy for enhancing athletic performance. Using evidence-based methods, nutrition managers or leaders cultivate adapted nutrition strategies that match athletes’ specific physiological needs and objectives. Maximizing an athlete’s highest potential depends on respecting the advice of nutrition leaders, whether it is on increasing strength, endurance, or speeding recovery. Adjusting dietary strategy can differentiate podium performances and wasted chances as athletes chase marginal gains and competitive advantages. In addition, considering the growing recognition of the link between nutrition, healing from injuries, and injury prevention, 3 the knowledge of nutrition leaders is critical to preserving players’ careers and overall health. Nutrition leadership is critical to optimizing athletic performance since it offers competitors a strategy to reach their full potential. This becomes clearer as we delve deeper into the nuances of nutrition leadership, the importance of which extends far beyond dietary guidelines and significantly impacts how athletes succeed. Comprehending Athletic Nutrition All athletes (professional and amateur) need to understand athletic nutrition to maximize performance, improve recovery, and preserve general health. Elizabeth Lea Abbey used 88 DIII football players as a study sample (2022). Every participant completed two questionnaires: one regarding food frequency and the other on nutritional knowledge, which included a quiz and inquiries about their primary sources of nutrition-related information. Additionally, heights and body masses were. Out of the 88 individuals, more than half said they regularly consumed meat, dairy, and starches/grains, while less than half said they regularly consumed fruits and vegetables. The most popular supplements were protein powders, which 33% of users used regularly. Additionally, all participants’ average score on the nutrition knowledge question was 55.2%. On the quiz, people who had completed a college course on nutrition or health performed noticeably better than those who had not. For dietary advice, participants said they primarily relied on coaches, websites, and athletic trainers (ATs), and they found ATs to be the most reliable source. These athletes can be used as examples in any collegiate sports situation since they have room to grow in their understanding of nutrition. Sports dietitians emphasize the value of nutrition education for athletes and personnel and the possible involvement of a registered dietitian nutritionist by depending on sports team professionals for nutritional counsel. In many college setups, it is a crucial component that requires improvement. Indeed, a diet that may both reduce and raise the risk of chronic illnesses is practiced by far too many athletes. Furthermore, a complex and varied interaction exists between general health, performance, and nutrition. An 4 adequate diet gives the body the energy to function at its best, whether for daily tasks or competitive sports. Vitamins and minerals are essential for muscular function, energy metabolism, and general health. Athletes’ performance and recuperation may be affected by deficiencies. Athletes frequently have specific dietary deficits, especially for iron and vitamin D. In my experience, many male and female athletes who compete in track and crosscountry sports frequently have low iron levels. Running demands tremendous impact strength, generally resulting in more blood cell death. Furthermore, according to Louise et al. (2019), deficiencies in 73% of athletes (average age sample 27) and 22-21% of male athletes (average age sample 37) are related to iron deficiency. Muscle function and endurance work performance may be compromised by other, less prevalent dietary deficits in minerals, including folate, magnesium, or vitamin B12. Subsequently, micronutrient metabolism is crucial in helping the body become more efficient so athletes can maintain high-performance levels. Numerous vitamins and minerals help with physiological processes, which are the foundation of performance. For instance, vitamin D affects muscular function, protein synthesis, and bone maintenance. In addition to supporting immune function and aiding in the body’s defense against infections and illnesses, vitamin D regulates the immune system. This immunity is crucial, particularly as the exercise load increases. During essential load training, the human organism is under much strain, and a diet low in micronutrients makes illness more likely. According to Travis Thomas (2016), “Many athletes monitor vitamin D to achieve levels of greater than 50 ng·ml−1 because of the many potential ergogenic effects of vitamin D on sports performance Rev.” Moreover, vitamin D plays a role in protein synthesis, which is necessary for muscle rehabilitation and repair following intense exercise. Increasing vitamin D levels can help athletes recover from training sessions more quickly and improve their aerobic capacity, which is essential in all sports, not just cross-country and track. As Louise M Burke argues, “Unlike fats and proteins (e.g., ketones), which the body uses as energy sources in some conditions, glucose is the only energy substrate in the body 5 that functions solely for providing energy to cells (2016)”. High-intensity activity primarily uses carbohydrates and is essential for refueling the liver and muscles with glycogen. Specifically, endurance athletes need to consume more carbohydrates to satisfy their energy demands for the entirety of the workout. In my experience, eating cards before and after exercise is essential to balance any sessions properly. When it comes to endurance sports, hypoglycemia is a more severe threat. Because of this, fats, the other significant macronutrients, remain essential. Fat is the primary fuel needed in endurance sports. To preserve the glycogen stored during endurance exercise, individuals must be able to use fat as fuel. The athlete’s ability to consume fat correctly will rise with low-intensity training. As a result, it will significantly boost overall performance. To sustain their general health and meet their energy demands while training, athletes must consume enough healthy fats in their diet. For example, the healthiest fat products are found in nuts, seeds, avocados, olive oil, fatty fish, and other plant-based oils. Protein is the last class of macronutrients. The maintenance, development, and repair of muscles depend on proteins. Additionally, they contribute to the creation of hormones and enzymes. The amount of protein athletes require to promote muscle repair, and adaptation may need to be slightly more significant, where the usual range is 1.2 to 2.0 grams per kilogram of body weight per day, depending on the kind and intensity of exercise. A well-balanced diet with sufficient macronutrients and micronutrients will support an athlete’s training, performance, and general health. Working with a sports nutritionist or registered dietitian to create individualized nutrition regimens based on their unique requirements and objectives is frequently advantageous for athletes. Another critical component of sports performance is adequate fluid balance. The Role of Nutrition Leadership When nutrition specialists offer advice, knowledge, and oversight to athletes to maximize their dietary habits, athletic performance, and general health, this is called food leadership in sporting environments. This leadership position involves several responsibilities to improve 6 athletic performance and recovery, such as creating customized nutrition programs, teaching players about healthy eating habits, monitoring nutritional intake, and working with other sports medicine team members. Victoria Lambert (2022) states that collegiate and university athletic programs exist in various sizes and types. Sports nutrition models come in four different types. Each model is designed to help a program choose which kind of nutrition services is most appropriate for its student-athletes and sports teams. Maximizing the efficacy of dietary interventions in sports nutrition involves developing customized nutrition regimens for each athlete based on their specific needs, goals, dietary preferences, and training program. Nutrition leaders offer continuous assistance, education, and accountability to guarantee that athletes follow their diet programs and make wise food choices regularly. However, Leadership in nutrition is particularly crucial regarding food disorders in athletes. All levels of competitive athletes have a higher incidence of disordered eating; they are more likely to experience eating disorders than non-athletes and are more likely to participate in unhealthy weight control practices. According to Victoria Lambert (2022), investigators found that 18% to 25% of female athletes and 8% to 22% of male athletes met the full diagnostic criteria for eating disorders versus 9% of female and 0.5% of male age-matched control nonathletes. Hence, nutritional specialists should work with each athlete more individually to ensure they are correctly fueling their bodies. These behaviors are not healthy or ideal for performance, even if the majority of athletes do not fully fit the criteria of eating disorders. Good nutritional leadership in sports environments is essential for maximizing performance, avoiding injuries, assisting with recovery, fostering long-term health, and guaranteeing that athletes have the information and resources they require to adequately feed their bodies for practice and competition. Research shows from Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise Nutrition and Athletic Performance that male and female collegiate athletes who are ignorant of nutrition and misunderstand ideas connected to it consume insufficient quantities of the energy and 7 macronutrients carbohydrate, fat, and protein necessary for good health and athletic performance (2016). Nutrition Strategies for Peak Performance Pre-event nutrition, such as pre-game meals and snacks, is essential in providing athletes the energy, minerals, and fluid they need to perform at their best throughout practices and competitions. For athletes, the Daily Hydration Assessment is the most crucial tool that should utilized. An average body’s water and electrolyte balance, which comes from enough hydration, is the aim of every athlete. According to the International Journal of Exercise Metabolism and Sports Nutrition, A daily loss of body weight (W) greater than 0.5 to 1.0 kg (1 to 2 lb), a small volume of darkcolored urine (U; apple juice or darker), and the noticeable sensation of thirst (T) are all symptoms of dehydration. Because it can weaken the immune system, dehydration is highly harmful to the body and increases the risk of disease and infection in athletes. Based on my observations, I have witnessed a teammate who has diabetes struggle greatly with dehydration. I have seen dehydration during exercise occur without notification, especially while running in South Florida, the country’s warmest and most humid region. Before experiencing the initial signs of dehydration, which may be highly harmful to the body, we are not even aware that we suffer from it. In this case, there is a higher chance of adverse effects and injury. Douglas J. Casa states that when it comes to the fundamentals of sweat science: “In weather that is temperate or warmer, sweating accounts for more than 50% of body heat removal and close to 100% in scorching environments” (2023). I had experienced heat removal through sweat, particularly during the fall season when the heat was unbearable. For this reason, nutrition before, during, and after practice/competition is crucial in this scenario. In my situation, I have only had one meeting with a dietitian and my entire team to 8 discuss the consequences of insufficient nourishment and water to support our training load more effectively. However, these meetings were relatively infrequent. We should be allowed to discuss this with a nutritionist as often as possible. While several techniques exist to maximize hydration, not all student-athletes have this knowledge. The primary takeaway that I took away from my time in Florida is the need to consume plenty of electrolytes. I used to underestimate how much sweat I was releasing during training. Providing athletes with the proper electrolyte balance to promote hydration, development of muscles, and general performance is a crucial part of efficiently regulating electrolytes. I believe that the best times to take electrolyte supplements are when you are engaged in intense physical activity and your body requires more electrolytes due to environmental factors like heat and humidity. Even when athletes are not training in a scorching environment, they might still benefit from learning how to fuel their bodies properly to perform at their peak performance. When we engage in physical activity for over half an hour, we still lose a significant amount of sodium chloride. For this reason, having a more extensive dietetics staff in every college athletic program is crucial because we are not fully aware of how to effectively manage our bodies through training. Professionals should be available to consult with all athletes, at least in the D1 and D2 divisions. It is more helpful to consult with sports nutritionists, dietitians, or other healthcare specialists to receive individualized advice and suggestions based on specific requirements, objectives, and medical considerations. In feeding techniques for competition or training, there is a distinction between the intensity and duration of the sporting activity. Nevertheless, carbohydrates are the primary dietary tool to watch during a sporting event. By consuming carbohydrates, athletes may maintain blood glucose levels and energy during extended events or high-intensity sports. Various snacks, such as fruit, sports drinks, energy gels, or energy bars, can be consumed during an athletic event to supply quick energy. The body’s ability to tolerate it is the only inconvenience an athlete must worry about. Stomach problems have made incorporating a snack into my running routine challenging. Liquid gels improved my training experience and performance throughout extended, hard sessions. Finding the right snack for an athlete requires experimenting with various options. Taking 9 supplements during practice is still recommended despite the lack of perceived benefit. This is because supplements help the body recover from training more quickly and maximize its effects, which is the main goal in optimizing performance. Primarily, protein is a necessary macronutrient that is required for muscle repair following intense physical activity. After working out, consuming protein is crucial for muscle development and repair. It significantly aids in athletes recovering and improving more quickly after each workout. Numerous highquality protein sources are available that may be used before working out. There are other options for protein supplements, but whey protein is the most convenient to consume within 30 minutes of practice. Lean meats, chicken, fish, eggs, dairy products, tofu, and even beans should be consumed in addition to more nutritious foods. The goal of every athlete in any sport is to consume various nutrients. It plays a significant role in achieving optimal performance. Louise A. McLeman noted that: “The current sports nutrition guidelines recommend that ≥ 0.25 g kg−1 of PRO is consumed immediately post to maximize muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and myofibrillar remodeling following endurance exercise” (2019). Endurance sports like running, cycling, or swimming are not the only endurance exercise. Exercise that lasts longer than 45 minutes is classified as an endurance workout because it makes the body use its aerobic ability to generate energy more effectively by combining fats and carbohydrates. Athletes not closely monitored by specialists, such as amateurs, tend to underestimate the impact of over 0.25 g kg−1. Using myself as an example, my weight is 69 kg (153 lbs). Ideally, one should have more than 17 grams of protein after practice. To maximize recovery and muscle synthesis, it is crucial to have your post-workout meal or snack between 30 minutes to 2 hours of working out. Your body is most open to absorbing nutrients within this time. Because of this, planning is required to be able to consume the proper nutrition shortly after practice. The secret is always to pack a high-protein, highcarbohydrate snack for each sports session you undertake away from home. While sufficient protein after working out is necessary to help muscles rebuild more quickly, other 10 components of a healthy post-workout meal are sometimes neglected. After an exercise, staying hydrated is essential to restoring fluids lost via sweat and maintaining optimal muscular function. To rehydrate, take on plenty of water or an electrolyte-rich sports drink. According to several studies, a significant portion of the population does not drink enough water. We undervalue our needs, mainly when we engage in more strenuous physical activity. The first area to concentrate on is maintaining adequate hydration, linked to all our consequent activities. To obtain the most significant benefits from the food we eat daily, we must ensure that our bodies are well-hydrated throughout the day, not just after an intense workout. Nutrition Aspects Specific to Sports Various sports and athletes have different nutritional requirements. The body is under different pressures from other sports regarding energy consumption, muscular usage, endurance, and healing. A long-distance runner, for instance, needs a distinct dietary strategy than a powerlifter or a basketball player. The ratio of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in an athlete’s diet could fluctuate depending on the needs of their sport and the macronutrients that are the primary component of nutrients to focus on. While athletes in strength-based sports may benefit from a greater protein intake to assist muscle growth and repair, endurance athletes may need a higher carbohydrate intake to sustain extended aerobic exertion. The physical health of an athlete is crucial for their health. Despite the sport, the driving factors on the athlete’s success depend on their endurance, strength, skills, and the health of their bodies. Nonetheless, athlete’ body health is primarily determined by their nutrition levels derived from what they eat (Amawi et al., 2024). However, the diet of a sports athlete is not so different from that of any other person trying to maintain a healthy body. Just like machines require enough and appropriate fuel to function, so does any athlete’s body. Athletes need to take special care to balance the quantity of calories and the vitamins and nutrients that they take in their bodies. However, while consuming the calories, the amount 11 ought to be determined by the type of sport they are undertaking, the amount of training needed, and the amount of time spent. It is also advisable that the athletes eat a meal 2-4 hours before game time (Otsuka Pharmaceutical Company Limited, n.d). It is also vital to consider the time athletes eat or drink, as it is essential to evaluate an athlete’s diet. Energy Requirements, Balance, and Availability Ensuring the consumption of foods and drinks is crucial to an athlete’s diet. Feeding on the proper diet is essential because it is what determines the athlete’s capacity for macronutrient and micronutrient intake, supports optimal body functioning, and aids in the manipulation of body composition. An athlete’s energy intake derived from fluids, food, and supplements is determined based on food frequency questionnaires and measured food records defined for 3-7 days or every 24 hours (Jimenez-Alfageme et al., 2023). However, these methods have limitations, chief among which is their bias in under-reporting energy intakes. Therefore, highlights the need to educate athletes on the importance of recording their food intake to improve the precision and relevance of the information they report. Still, it is essential to note that an athlete’s energy intake requirements are determined based on the intensity of the competition they will participate in and the training period. Therefore, food intake varies from time to time through the annual training plan as related to the variations in the training intensity and volume. Some factors that increase energy intake requirements above the normal baseline levels are the use of drugs and medications, stress, fear, exposure to cold and heat, physical injuries, high altitude exposure, menstrual cycles in female athletes, and more. Besides reducing one’s training intensity, the requirements for training in athletes reduce as athletes age, during the follicular stage of the menstrual cycle amongst female athletes, and a reduction in fat-free mass (FFM). Athletes achieve a balance in energy levels when total Energy Intake (EI) equals Total Energy Expenditure (TEE), which is a sum of the Thermic Effect of Food (TEF), basal metabolic rate (BMR), and the Thermic Effect of Activity (TEA) (Media, 2022). Total Energy Expenditure is determined by the summation of basal metabolic rate + Thermic Effect of Food + Thermic Effect of Activity. On 12 the other hand, TEA = Planned Exercise Expenditure + Spontaneous Physical Activity + NonExercise Activity Thermogenesis The methods used to determine the composition of Total Energy Expenditure in inactive and fairly active individuals are also applicable among athletes. However, there are limitations to the TEE method, mainly if it is used as a measurement method for Energy Intake in competitive athletes. Since measuring the basal metabolic rate requires athletes to stay at rest, it is relevant in measuring resting metabolic rates (RMR) higher than 10%. Whereas individual regression equations are advised for use in this measurement, a fair estimate of the basal metabolic rate can be obtained by using the Harris-Benedict equations or the Cunningham4 following the application of a proper activity to the total energy expenditure (TEE) (Zajac, & Mucha, 2015). Although the Resting Metabolic Rate is estimated to be 60%-80% of the Total Energy Expenditure in inactive individuals, it can be as low as 38%-47% of the Total Energy Expenditure in active athletes that have a TEA of 50% (Poehman, 1989). The Thermic Effect of Activity entails spontaneous physical activity such as non-exercise activity thermogenesis, fidgeting, and planned exercise expenditure. Energy Expenditure from Exercise (EEE) can be measured using several methods: (1) the use of the 2015 US dietary guidelines and the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), the use of activity codes and metabolic equivalents (METS), and activity logs on the range of 1–7 days based on the intensity of exercises an athlete participates in (Ndahimana, & Kim, 2017). However, reports show that the 2015 US dietary guidelines and the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), the use of activity codes and metabolic equivalents (METS) undervalue the athlete’s requirements as they do not consider the athlete’s activity level of competition and their body sizes. Energy availability (EA) is a new term in the description of athlete nutrition. EA means the requirements of athlete energy levels with the requirements needed to ensure proper health and functioning of the athlete’s body instead of energy balance. Energy availability calculated as dietary intake – exercise energy expenditure normalized to FFM refers to the 13 body’s energy levels, which an athlete has to carry out other activities after a competitive athletics exercise (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2019). The concept of Energy Availability was first analyzed in female athletes, where an EA of 45 kcal/kg FFM/d was associated with energy balance and optimal health (Tarnowski et al., 2023). On the other hand, continued reduction in Energy Availability (below 30 kcal/kg FFM/d) impairs many body functions. In the same way, a reduction in Energy Availability may be an effect of one’s Energy Intake levels, high Total Energy Expenditure, or both. In the same way, low energy availability may result from disordered eating, an excessive program for body mass loss, a sudden failure to meet energy intake requirements during an intensive training program, and more. Macronutrients Carbohydrates Macronutrients, for example, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, give athletes the energy to participate in physical activities and endurance during competitive sports events. Since carbohydrates are energy-giving foods, carbohydrate nutrients are vital for athletes as they discharge glucose, which is essential for energy use (Better Health Channel, n.d). One gram of carbohydrate holds about 4 kilocalories of energy. Moreover, glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Muscle glycogens are the commonly used energy sources that support athlete’s muscles, and they are released faster than other energy sources. Athlete nutritionists advise on the intake of 45% to 65% of total caloric intake in 4-18 year athletes (Purcell, 2013). Some carbohydrate-rich foods athletes are advised to eat are vegetables, whole grains, milk, fruits, and yogurt. Proteins Proteins are renowned for building and repairing muscles, nails, hair, and the skin. For short-duration and mild exercises, proteins are not considered significant energy 14 sources. However, as the duration of exercise increases, proteins maintain blood glucose through liver gluconeogenesis (Lemon, 1992). 1g of protein releases 4 kilocalories of energy. Nutritionists in athletes 4 to 18 advise that proteins should be 10% to 30% of total energy intake (Lemon, 1992). Athletes should eat protein-rich foods, including dairy products, lean meat, fish, beans, eggs, nuts, peanuts, and poultry. Fats Fats are needed to absorb fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), protect vital organs, release essential fatty acids, and offer insulation. Also, fats provide the feeling of being sated. Fats are a rich source of calories; 1g of fats produces 9 kilocalories. The recommended fat intake in athletes aged 4-18 is 25% to 35% of total energy intake (Maughan, 1997). Similarly, saturated fats should not exceed 10% of the total energy intake. Athletes are advised to feed on meals such as olive and canola oils, dairy products, lean meat, seeds, nuts, and fish and dairy products to derive fats as an energy source. Nevertheless, athletes are discouraged from eating fried foods, candy, chips, and baked foods. Macronutrients Whereas there are a variety of minerals and vitamins athletes should eat for their excellent health, special attention should be paid to eating the right amounts of vitamin D, calcium, and iron. Calcium facilitates normal contraction, regular enzyme activity, and strong bones. Athletes between 4 years are recommended to take 1000mg/day of calcium nutrients, whereas adults aged 18 years and above take 1300mg/day (Purcell, 2013). Calcium can be obtained from beverages and foods such as broccoli, yogurt, milk, cheese, fortified grain products, and spinach. Alternatively, Vitamin D is required for the strength and health of bones; Vitamin D also helps in the body’s intake and regulation of calcium. Individuals aged 4-18 years should take 600IU/day of calcium. The amount of Vitamin D an athlete absorbs/takes daily varies based on race and geographical location. For example, athletes who reside in areas of high 15 altitude and those who train indoors, such as gymnasts, skaters, and dancers, lack sufficient Vitamin D because they lack sunlight exposure. Vitamin D sources include sun exposure and fortified foods like milk. However, other dairy products besides milk, such as yogurt, lack vitamin D. Iron aids the supply of oxygen in the body tissues. An adolescent requires more iron as this is a stage of significant body transformation (growth), lean muscle mass development, and blood volume increase. As such, athletes aged 9-13 years are advised to ingest 8mg/day of iron to prevent iron deficiency anemia and the possibility of depleting their iron stores (Roy et al., 2022). Then, adolescents aged 14 to 18 need more iron, up to 11mg/day for boys and 15 mg/day for females. The depletion of iron stores is a common phenomenon amongst athletes because of the high levels of iron loss through sweat, urine, feces, and menstrual blood, poor diet lacking fish poultry, fish, and the lack of exposure to sunlight. Athletes, predominantly female athletes, long-distance runners, and vegetarians, need to regularly be screened to know the status of their iron levels in the body. Athletes are advised to feed on leafy green vegetables, eggs, green vegetables, lean meat, and fortified whole grains. Sports-specific Nutrition Sprinting Besides the comprehensive literature on stamina running, there is limited information on sprinting. ‘Sprinting’ is a general term used in athletics to mean applying short and maximum energy in activities such as running, swimming, cycling, rowing, canoeing, soccer, field hockey, and rugby. During these activities, the length of the activity often differs from track sprinting. Thus, in this project, sprinting will be defined as a short-term utmost exercise of less than 60 seconds. The focus of the exercise is intended to ensure maximum oxygen uptake without the dispersion of energy. Proper nutrient intake is primarily ensured during training and sprinting sports activities. Studies such as Hirvonen et al. 1987, 1992; Lacour et al. 1990; Hautier et al. 1994; Locatelli & Arsac 1995 have examined the metabolic responses 16 to 100-m and 400-m track sprinting. In particular, Hirvonen et al. (1987) calculated the phosphocreatine (PCr), muscle adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and lactate concentrations in seven male sprinters before and after running 40, 60, 80, and 100 meters at the upper limit speed. The results of the studies show that the rate of PCr use is critical in sprinting/ speed at which an athlete runs. Similarly, the survey by Locatelli and Arsac (1995) showed that anaerobic glycolysis produces about 65–70% of the metabolic energy during a 100-m race in a study they carried out on 4 male and 4 female national sprinters during the 1994 Italian championships. Lacour et al. (1990) analyzed the validity of post-exercise lactate concentration as an indicator of the rate of anaerobic glycolysis in a 400-meter sprinting exercise, while Hautier et al. (1994) analyzed the same in 200 and 100-meter sprinting. Lacour et al. (1990) took blood samples from 17 high-level athletes after completing a 400-meter race. The researchers observed that postrace blood lactate concentrations were high in the fastest athletes, as observed by the relationship between lactate concentration and running speed amongst the male athletes (r = 0.85) and women (r=0.80). Hirvonen et al. (1992) aimed to measure the changes in the concentration of muscles in ATP, PCr, and lactate in a 400-meter sprinting race. During the study, a 400-meter race was conducted involving 6 male runners (time, 51.9 ±0.7 s), and interval times were recorded after every 100 meters. Sometimes, the runners were requested to run 100, 200, and 300 meters at the same speed as their 400-meter split times. The runner’s biopsies were recorded from their vastus lateralis muscle before and after completing each meter sprint. After that, these were measured for lactate and PCr concentrations. The studies showed that after the first 100-meter sprint, the PCr muscle concentration fell from 15.8±1.7–8.3 ±0.3 mmol· kg–1 wet weight (Fig. 41.3), and by the end of the race, PCr concentration declined by 89% to 1.7±0.4mmol ·kg–1 wet weight (Hirvonen et al., 1992). In the same way, the average speed across the 400-meter race declined after the 200-meter race, much as the lactate and PCr were not depleted at this stage of the competition. The researchers also observed that the level of lactate muscle development in the first 100 meters was nearly half that in the two following race sessions (100–200 and 17 200–300m). Indeed, this confirms that anaerobic glycolysis contributes to energy production in athletes’ sprinting activities. The rate of adenosine triphosphate production from glycolysis was maximum at 200 and 300 meters, shown by the high rate of lactate accumulation in the blood and athlete muscles at this stage in the marathon. However, glycolysis reduced during the last 100 meters, causing a dramatic and noticeable decrease in the athlete’s running speed. Lemon (1992) notes that the strength and endurance of an athlete increase when an athlete feeds on a diet rich in protein nutrients. Lemon (1992) advises feeding on nutrition intakes of about 1.4–1.7g protein· kg–1 body mass ·day–1. Lemon and Proctor (1991) add that a diet with 12–15% protein nutrients is sufficient to give strength to athletes if the total energy intake is enough to compensate for their daily energy expenditure. Athletes must double their energy intake to meet the daily demands of training and engaging in competitive sports. Most of the studies used here and those not included report on the energy intakes of endurance athletes. For example, the study by Burke (2001) confirms that the daily energy intake of sprinting athletes is about 16.8 MJ (400 kcal), the same as the energy intake of bodybuilders in their research. However, the researchers did not record the athletes’ physical characteristics on which the study was carried out. A balanced diet, consisting of various food nutrients, is recommended to meet the athlete’s needs for minerals, Vitamins, and energy. To this, Devlin & Williams (1991) and Lemon (1992) advise that at least 60–70% (7–8 g· kg–1) of an athlete’s daily intake of energy foods should be carbohydrates, 12% from protein foods (1.2–1.7 g · kg–1), and the balance energy from fat rich-foods. There is limited evidence to suggest sprinters need additional food supplements (including vitamins and minerals) in the accumulation of a regular balanced diet consisting of a variety of food nutrients to meet an athlete’s energy requirements. 18 According to Murray and Rosenbloom (2018), muscle glycogens improve an athlete’s performance in endurance sports activities. As such, this has been a nutrition strategy used by athletes involved in endurance sports over the years. Similarly, changing the amount of carbohydrate intake in the days preceding the sports day has been shown to influence positive performance in intense sports activities (Nicholas et al., 1997). Nevertheless, there is a point at which glycogen concentration impairs high-intensity exercise. Alghannam, Gonzalez, and Betts (2018) contend that a diet of about 8–10g carbohydrate· kg–1 body mass is enough to replenish the depleted muscle glycogen stores after a day’s 1-hour training session. Bodybuilders use anabolic steroids to enhance their muscle tissues, but this practice is not without its dangers. Hatfield (1987) notes that amino acid supplements have been advertised over the years for strengthening athletes as they possess a muscle-building effect. The most commonly used amino acids are ornithine and arginine; the two have stimulatory effects on the growth and production of the human growth hormone (HGH) (Williams, 1989). Distance Running Several athletes believe in using nutritional elements to improve their athletic performances or even turn them into world champions one day. Despite these beliefs, the few nutrition supplements that can confer athletes with such merits are on the list of prohibited supplements for athlete events by the International Olympic Committee. That said, there is a need to equip athletes with in-depth knowledge of nutrition diets to achieve positive performance and stay on the right side of athlete participation laws. Given the above, nutritionists advise endurance runners to feed on diets containing about 70% of energy from carbohydrates, 15% proteins, and 15% fatty foods.BIn addition, supplementing athlete diets with more carbohydrates refills muscle glycogen stores and enhances the athlete’s overall performance. Lastly, when an athlete needs to recover fast from training exhaustion and fatigue, it is recommended to give them a carbohydrate intake of 8–10g · kg–1 body mass ·day–1. 19 The loss of body fluids during an activity is influenced by the rate at which the athlete sweats and its proportionality to their metabolic rate and the surrounding temperature. The study by Wyndham and Strydom (1969) on a 32-meter race (150ml h – 1) where athletes took less fluids showed a significant loss in the participant’s weight (2.4kg), which also led to high postrace rectal temperatures. Based on this observation, athletes (runners/sprinters) are encouraged to drink lots of fluids (at least 900ml) per hour in the course of a competition to minimize the effects of water loss as a result of heat (Wyndham & Strydom, 1969). Contemporary investigations indicate that runners consume not more than 500 ml· h–1 during distance races. On the contrary, the sweat rate and the average rates of fluid intake are invariably around 1.0–1.2l· h–1 in competitions that last 2 hours or more (Noakes, 1993). Noakes (1993) explains that athletes fail to match the rate of their fluid loss with fluid intake because runners usually feel complete when they try taking more fluids during an athletic event. According to Davies et al. (1980), the feelings of stomach fullness may partly result from their limited fluid absorption capacity. Jejunal and duodenal perfusion investigations explain that maximum water absorption happens when isotonic solutions containing glucose are taken. These often limit more fluid absorption at about 0.8l ·h–1 (Davies et al., 1980). Due to the high rate of losing sodium chloride through sweat, the fluid absorption rate of water in the athletes’ bodies can be relatively low. Athletes are advised to take fluids during running to minimize the risks of dehydration leading to a decline in blood flow in the skin and blood plasma, supplement endogenous carbohydrate stores, and improve their overall performance. While it is thought that the best rate of drinking fluids is equal to the rate which measures the rate that measures the loss of fluids, the correct amount of the fluid and electrolyte replacement of the extracellular space is yet to be determined. Lastly, the amount of fluid intake required to restore the high (>1l per h) rate of sweating induced as a result of long athlete exercises almost certainly exceeds the maximal intestinal absorptive capacity for water. 20 Some of the recommendations athletes involved in enduring moderate-intensity activities of 6 hours or more are advised to follow: just before the activity or during the warm-up exercise; athletes are advised to drink flavored water and ingest about 5 ml per kg of body mass of calm. For the first 60–75 min of the exercise, the athlete should take 100–150 of an excellent, dilute (3.0– 5.0g per 100 ml) glucose polymer solution at regular intervals (10–15 min). However, athletes are cautioned to ingest carbohydrate amounts higher than 30 g during the preliminary stages of the exercise. Only 20g of the consumed carbohydrates are digested in the first hour of moderate-intensity exercise, regardless of the type of carbohydrates consumed or drunk. Then, athletes are advised to increase the ingestion of the solution after about 90 minutes of the exercise to 7–10g per 100 ml and add 20 mEq per l of sodium. High sodium concentration may not be pleasant to every athlete despite their benefits. It is also advised to add potassium since it enables the rehydration of the intracellular fluid compartment in the replacement beverage in small amounts of 2–4 mEq per liter. For the remaining part of the race, athletes are advised to consume 100–150ml of potassium at intervals of (10–15min). The consumption regimen helps to ensure optimal energy and fluid delivery rates, thus limiting the possibility of the athlete’s dehydration and sustaining the carbohydrate oxidation rate late on during the exercise. In the end, this supports the athlete’s endurance. Cycling Cycling is one of the athletic sports that are usually studied by sports nutritionists and exercise physiologists. Cycling, cross-country skiing, and triathlon have the highest energy turnovers. Over the years, energy use in endurance sports has been measured using the doubly labeled water. The doubly labeled water method effectively measures energy use amongst athletes over a pre-longed exercise time (Westerterp et al., 1986). Athletes who partake in prolonged, moderate to high (>70% of maximal oxygen uptake) exercise require high energy levels and high carbohydrate intake. The addition of carbohydrates is needed to optimize the availability of fuel in training sessions and to enable post-exercise muscle 21 glycogen re-synthesis. Glycogen loading or glycogen super-compensation is how athletes restore glycogen levels to their pre-exercise level or above. One of the most common observations on high energy intakes in athletes is that much of the nutrition intakes taken during the day are combined when an athlete is exercising. For instance, carbohydrate drinks and foods used while riding a cyclist produce about 50% of the total energy and 60% of the day’s carbohydrate intake. The best food choices that enable cyclists to achieve this goal are fruits, cakes, bread, candy, and more portable carbohydrate-rich foods. Snacks also provide a high amount of carbohydrates. Snacks contain some fats, simple carbohydrates, and very little micronutrients. Thus, snacks are recommended to cyclists because of their abundant micronutrients and less fat (Brouns, 1986). Cyclists are advised to consume portable carbohydrate-rich foods like cakes, bread, and confectionery. Moreover, cyclists should preserve water balance. Amongst cyclists, dehydration induced by intensive exercises can cause hyperthermia. Alternative studies indicate that preventing dehydration during cycling improves the cyclist’s performance. Based on the prevailing weather conditions, the water loss in cyclists varies from 0.5-3 liters per hour. Athletes’ loss of fluids can be measured based on their weight loss; however, this may include a minor consideration for the athlete’s weight loss due to fat and glycogen oxidation. In a 90-minute cycling exercise, about 100–300 g of fat and glycogen can be oxidized. Athletes can estimate their fluid loss by measuring their body weight before and after exercises and competitions. Team Sports Developing a suitable nutrition plan for team sports entails using scientific research and social skills, which requires working with the coaching staff and sports medicine (Holway & Spriet, 2011). Both court and field team sports involve intermittent activities containing carbohydrate-rich foods that help to restore and maintain the athlete’s glycogen. Substrate and energy demands are amongst athletes during matches and pre-season training and modest in competitive training sessions. A dietary plan should include sufficient carbohydrate 22 amounts for a manageable budget that meets the athlete’s protein needs. Sports activities/teams that use power and strength should include muscle-building programs supplemented by sufficient nutrition diets. Nutritionists can sometimes use simple anthropometric measurements to observe and evaluate the body’s muscle composition. Alternatively, a urine-specific gravity refractometer and a body mass scale can help nutritionists determine who is susceptible to dehydration during a sports competition. Caffeine and sports beverages are the most common supplements, but there remain divided opinions on creatine’s effectiveness in preventing athletes’ dehydration. Alternatively, maturing adolescents exhibit anxiety about gaining muscles and size. For this reason, a sports psychologist may need to carry out a maturity status assessment using an anthropometric procedure. However, sports psychologists and nutritionists need to know that athletes’ needs differ, meaning each athlete may use a different nutrition plan. Burke (2007) argues that ensuring optimum nutrition for sports team athletes is not straightforward. According to Burke, economic limitations to culture and psychological factors often interfere with these programs. As such, nutritionists are advised to use various interpersonal skills to complement their nutrition-specific knowledge in their interactions with sports team athletes and medical and coaching staff. This is not to forget the exhibition of sports culture and common-sense judgment to ease the possibility of emotional and psychological conflicts. Burke (2007) concludes that effecting policies and procedures for physique assessment, nutrition recovery, and supplementation, which are supposed to be followed on a routine basis, can be vital in achieving the nutrition goals for sports athletes. Setting the policies for a nutrition program regarding physical assessment, meal times, hydration methods, recovery measures, and nutrition supplements is principal in driving the success of a nutrition program. Team coaches always design 3 training cycles for their teams per annum, beginning with pre-season training, practices, and match preparation training. Clarke et al. (2003) claim that athletes show high energy needs during pre-season training sessions, which increases 23 their resting energy requirements, while they may require less energy during the ordinary competitive session. Often, teams organize pre-season training in camps or a place away from their usual training ground. A weekly menu planning cycle is thus crucial in helping the athletes recuperate from the intense training sessions and feel gratified after an exhausting training period. From the literature analysis in this project, I have discovered that menu plans with low-fat composition prompt the inclusion of junk food for athletes in the off-hours if the available menus contain more fiber and fruits. In my view, menu lists containing less fatty foods influence athletes to eat junk foods. Unfortunately, eating junk food causes gastrointestinal upsets, affecting athletes’ performance in competitive sports. Athletes usually like having a standard food schedule and a menu of common foods rather than being served a variety of foods, which may induce complaints about the food. It is therefore advisable to sometimes plan special meal activities, for example, serving fries and a hamburger, visiting a restaurant, organizing an outdoor cocktail, or eating ice cream for dessert. Carbohydrate requirements and energy requirements on match days are high among athletes (Burke et al., 2006). However, the literature review in this project reveals that athletes do not eat much on the sports event day, perhaps because of travel schedules, which change their eating patterns and sometimes because of match stress. Athletes who compete once a week have enough time to recuperate their nutrition composition over the week. Alternatively, athletes who compete three times or more a week require a rigorous nutrition program to sustain their performance levels (Burke, 1995). Reily and Ekblom (2005) opine that athletes involved in relentless sports competitions (many times in a row) risk experiencing continual glycogen and fluid depletion, which may have a downward haul on their performance levels, which makes the need to design insistent measures to promote carbohydrates and fluid intake even more important. Conditions might be even trickier when a sports team is playing away, meaning that the sports team has to do with alternative food 24 sources from a restaurant, limiting their freedom to make food choices per their nutrition plan (Burke, 2007). Sports teams may need snacks to support nutrition recovery if this is the case. Rodriguez et al. (2009a, 2009b) suggest a more practical way of determining weight loss amongst athletes as weighing the athletes before and after the practice session to identify the athletes that have lost about 2% weight, which is considered a point at which an athlete’s performance can be affected. Another method is carrying out a urine specific gravity (USG) measurement with a hand-held refractometer to determine the athlete’s hydration status (Volpe et al., 2009). Burke & Hawley (1997) and Maughan & Shirreffs (2010) argue that athletes often turn up for training or on match days in a hypo-hydrated status. In this case, Palmer, Logan, and Spriet (2010) argue that taking an estimated 600 mL of sports drinks or water before the practice or game can help rehydrate the athlete in a mere 30–45 minutes. Armstrong et al. (2010) add that urine-specific gravity data can be plotted against published percentile standards of hydration and athletes to ease the identification of athletes likely to experience dehydration during a competitive sport. During the process, the baseline urine-specific gravity values for athletes will be obtained from the athletes’ routine training sessions. Another method that can be used to determine the athlete’s hydration condition is using urine color charts (Armstrong et al., 1998). However, this method can be compromised if the athlete takes vitamin supplements, which change the urine color. Noticeably, athletes with concentrated urine are considered to be highly susceptible to dehydration during practice or games. While it may be challenging to measure team members on match day because coaches prefer to avoid any distractions, these data can be valuable and, in our experience, are often different from data obtained at friendly matches and training sessions. Sweat losses can be high when games are played in hot climates (Kurdak et al., 2010). We have found that game-day stress may alter players’ drinking practices, leading to over- or underhydration. Drinking at half-time varies widely, with some players drinking two cans of energy drinks and some tentatively sipping water. Nevertheless, most people can 25 comfortably consume half a liter or more of sports beverages. Team sports without a formal half-time break, such as baseball, can use time off the field to refuel with fluids. Sports teams with limited funding have successfully prepared their homemade sports drink with sugar, maltodextrin, table salt, water, and a flavoring agent. To identify heavy salt sweaters, training with dark-colored clothing can be used to identify contrasting white salt stains. More sophisticated methods include the application of sweat patches to assess the extent of electrolyte loss (Shirreffs et al., 2006). Although still an issue of debate, some authors suggest that increasing salt intake may help some athletes prone to cramping (Eichner, 2007). Lastly, the availability of drinking opportunities and the accessibility of drinking bottles are helpful strategies in providing fluids to athletes (Murray, 2006). Nutrition for team sports requires knowledge of the sport-specific physiology of training and competition and social skills to implement dietary recommendations within a multi-professional sports science and medicine group and coaching staff. Roles and Responsibilities of a Sports Dietitian Practicing as a sports nutritionist or dietitian, one needs a plethora of knowledge spanning nutrition science, the application of evidence-based research, exercise psychology, and clinical nutrition. Since sports activities are competitive, athletes and sports teams always seek competent individuals to help them achieve their goals. As such, sports nutritionists are some of the members of demand in the athletic industry. Athletes need sports nutritionists to advise them or their teams on the appropriate diet plans to improve their physical well-being and performance. Similarly, experienced sports nutritionists with knowledge of athlete diets assist athletes in making the proper diet choices that sustain their enhanced sports performance. The Commission on Dietetic Registration (the credentialing agency for the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics) was established as an umbrella body for registered dietitian nutritionists (Commission on Dietetic Registration, n.d). The Agency gathers together all dietitians who offer sports nutrition services to athletes. Likewise, the Board-Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics (CSSD) credential is the Premium Professional 26 Sports nutrition agency that provides sports nutrition services to athletes in the United States (Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, n.d). CSSD services are also available in international countries like Canada. Sports dietitians provide specialist nutrition advice and counseling that advance athletes’ health and physical performance. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics clarifies the role of a sports dietitian in providing medical nutrition therapy in the design, care, implementation, and management of nutrition strategies that enhance athletes’ health, fitness, and endurance. Dietitian roles and responsibilities in athlete nutrition are further elaborated below; Sports dietitians assist in assessing the nutrition needs, the current dietary practices, and their impacts on athletes (University of Plymouth, n.d). A dietitian monitors an athlete’s energy intake, including food and fluids, before, during, and after the training or match session. Dietitians also assess athlete nutrition-related concerns, for example, the manifestation of allergies resulting from the food eaten, eating disorders, hypoglycemia, muscle cramps, and gastrointestinal upsets, and support the injury management process of athletes by ensuring athletes feed on the proper diets to recover faster. A dietitian’s role is to determine the amount of fluids and food an athlete should consume when at rest, traveling, and when on taper. Indeed, sports nutritionists play a significant role in conditioning athletes’ bodies to ensure they perform well. In addition to the above, the dietitian determines the nutrition requirements of an athlete following changes in weather patterns and if the athlete engages in high-altitude training exercises. They also check to measure athlete’s metabolic risk factors related to an athlete’s low body weight and its effects on the athlete’s performance. This information guides them on the appropriate nutrition needs that need to be recommended for particular sports individuals. Dietitians measure athletes’ body weight, height, body weight, body composition, and supplementation practices, which are essential for anthropometry and biochemistry. They conduct body composition, urine, and blood analysis to determine an athlete’s hydration status. This information helps nutritionists recommend appropriate energy 27 intake based on athletes’ characteristics. Simply put, dietitians give dietary prescriptions and recommendations like nurses do to patients in healthcare settings. A dietitian lays down plans to enable behavioral change to improve an athlete’s body composition and overall health. Between, the dietitian makes the prescriptions relative to the participant’s expressed concerns depicted in training, tapering, competition nutrition, periodized weight/fat loss, and the timing of energy intakes before and after practice. This intends to improve the athlete’s practice performance and stamina. Dietitians serve in a capacity similar to medical practitioners in healthcare settings, and they thus give athletes therapeutic guidance regarding the diets they need to consider to maintain their body health and shape. This includes cautioning athletes on foods that may cause them health issues such as diabetes, food allergies, gastrointestinal upsets, and eating disorders. On sports teams, dietitians lead nutrition members responsible for menu planning, food preparation, grocery shopping, food budgeting, Menu planning, food storage, time management, grocery shopping, food preparation, and menu changes on competition and training days (Thomas et al., 2016). On match day travel days, the dietitian is responsible for choosing a venue/eatery location that they trust on behalf of the team. They guide athletic teams on the appropriate ergogenic aids, supplementation, and fortified foods as far as their safety, legality, and efficiency for use are concerned for athletes. Dietitians also develop resources and educational materials about athlete diets. Although dietitians are seen more as aids or sports nutritionists, they collaborate with athletes and the coaching staff to form a compact team, each playing a role in a team’s performance. Therefore, sports nutritionists integrate nutrition programming into a team’s/individual nutrition plan. Lastly, dietitians document the nutrition results of specific nutrition programs to assess their impacts on the athlete’s performance and guide the coaching team on whether to adopt or forego the plan. Eating Disorder in Athletes The problem of eating disorders for athletes is a risk that grows bigger by the day. It is a factor that can be missed unless it has been specifically searched for. Nutritional leadership 28 for athletes seems to be the boldest and best move to ensure the problem has been tackled effectively. It is thus essential for the nutrition counselors of athletes to have ample knowledge of the symptoms of eating disorders and also of the strategies and proper methods to tackle the problem when dealing with athletes with the disorder, as well as how to prevent eating disorders. It has been approximated that eating disorders occur in the range of 0-19% for male athletes and 6-45% for female athletes. An eating disorder is a mental illness that grows somewhat unconsciously in athletes due to some factors, including being over-stressed and anxiety. Other risk factors that can lead to the development of eating disorders include pressure for weight cycling and dieting. Most sports emphasize leanness, which pressures the athletes to reduce their body mass and weight. When the first weight loss leads to victory, the athlete is likely to want to keep dieting to maintain the victory and unconsciously fall into an eating disorder. This can also have a hazardous domino effect on the other athletes, both team members or rival athletes, who might engage in unwarranted dieting, which might lead to them falling into the hook of eating disorders. Another factor is the personality of the athlete. Researchers have suggested that most of the traits that people hold with eating disorders are the traits that most sports coaches admire and expect their athletes to have. Some of the characteristics might include perfectionism, over-compliance, and excessive exercise. These traits are symptoms of eating disorders and the best ingredients for success in sports events and competitions. Also, choosing a sport that does not align with the body type is another problem that leads to eating disorders. Athletes who start sport-specific training at an early age are more likely to engage in eating disorders due to the weight requirements that are needed and also the pubertal changes. Traumatic events such as accidents and injuries to athletes can become a trigger for the development of eating disorders. After suffering from fatal injuries, athletes are most likely to gain unwanted weight due to the stress of the aftermath of the injury, such as not being able to train and also not being able to compete in championships. To fight the stress, athletes develop eating disorders that impact their careers and performance in sports. Also, sexual orientation is noted to be a trigger for male athletes. Homosexual males are at higher risk of developing 29 eating disorders compared to heterosexual male athletes. Several measures can be taken in the prevention and treatment of eating disorders, including early detection and mitigation. Early detection is one of the most critical steps in recovery. Since an eating disorder is a mental illness, it should be treated as such, and the athlete should be treated accordingly with the proper medication, nutrition, and psychiatric treatment. The effect of eating disorders on the performance of athletes is influenced by many factors, including the psychological and physical requirements of the particular sport. First and foremost, Fogelholm (1994) notes that the inability of an athlete to endure for the duration of the competition affects their performance. Ingjer and Sundgot-Borgen (1991) argue that the absolute maximal oxygen intake remains the same or reduces following the loss in body weight. At the same time, the maximum oxygen intake might increase following the loss of body weight. Muscle strength and anaerobic performance often decrease after weight loss, even when the athlete is subjected to 1–3 hours of rehydration. If the athlete is again measured after 5–24 hours of rehydration, their performance remains at a dehydrated level (Klinzing & Karpowicz, 1986; Fogelholm et al., 1993). Fogelhom (1994) adds that the lack of coordination when an athlete is dehydrated negatively affects athlete performance (Fogelholm, 1994). Nutritional Intervention on Overtraining Athletes train to improve their performance and sports participation abilities. An athlete is expected to engage in intensive and routine exercise practices to enhance performance. Accordingly, this prompts athletes to constantly balance training and overtraining to achieve their desired performance. Often, athletes find it difficult to find an optimal balance point to train and recover despite the significance of the balance to their sports performance and overall health. During the 1988 Olympic speed-skating sports competition, the difference in the average velocity between all gold and silver medal athletes was 0.3% (Orie et al., 2014). On the other hand, the mean variation between all the gold medalists and the fourth-placed athlete was 1.3%. Unfortunately, limited scientific information can be 30 accessed to guide on the best training durations to achieve better sports performance. The limited amount of information on training duration for peak performance literature suggests there is an estimated correlation between training duration e and improvement in athlete performance. Still, sports psychologists and coaches argue that there is the right amount of training duration for improved athlete performance. Unfortunately, the supposed training duration is uncertain and leaves a gray area, which is often the cause of over-training. Another form of overtraining is metabolic over-reach; this involves high-intensity training exercises. High-intensity training exercises require a high carbohydrate supply, which causes a quick depletion of glycogen stores. When athletes engage in high-intensity exercises with low glycogen levels, they may be imbalanced between ATP generation and adenosine triphosphate. Consequently, this causes an increase in adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Research studies show that the lack of carbohydrate nutrients increases an athlete’s susceptibility to incidents of overreaching. To avoid this, athletes are advised to increase their intake of carbohydrates and ensure they quickly replenish their glycogen stores. Kerksick et al. (2019) argue that increasing the intake of carbohydrates soon after a sports event restores an individual’s glycogen stores in a day. Even then, increasing the intake of carbohydrates only reduces the risk of metabolic overtraining but does not prevent it. Recovery Foods and Meal Planning for Young Athletes One of the most challenging elements to manage in the science of athlete nutrition is meal planning in the event of athletic competitions. Meal timing is a crucial consideration since athlete meals are usually individualized. Therefore, athletes must identify the foods that enhance their performance and recommend them to their nutritionists. Athletes are cautioned against experimenting, eating new founds, or trying new routines on a match day. The standard meal plan on a sports day is to eat at least 3 hours before the game starts so that digestion occurs wholly and avoid gastrointestinal inconveniences during the competition, 31 which ultimately affects the athlete’s performance. Athletes should also eat meals rich in proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, while fiber should be removed from the menu (Bangsbo et al., 1992). On the other hand, meals rich in fatty foods ought to be removed from the athlete’s menu immediately before the competition as they delay gastric emptying, making athletes slow, affecting their competitiveness in a game if the competition is scheduled in the early morning, a liquid or snack meal 1 to 2 hours before the game is recommended, and a breakfast meal after the competition to generate energy and recover fast. It is recommended that drinks and snacks be consumed and eaten between 1-2 hours before a competitive game to enable proper digestion. Some recommended snacks an athlete can take before game time are dried fruits, cereals, juice, juice-based smoothies, and milk and fresh fruits. Then, athletes are allowed to bring granola bars, fruits, and sports drinks during the match as these pose no effects but produce energy that makes athletes more competitive and enduring. Granola bars are highly concentrated in carbohydrates and fats, which are the essential fuels required for athletes to keep running. They are also the best and most reliable sources of energy needed to help athletes maintain their stance in competitions and exercise sessions. It is advised that recovery foods be eaten within 30 minutes of the training within 1-2 hours of the exercise to help the athlete refill energy levels with glycogen that supports faster recovery. However, it is essential to note that the foods eaten during the training should have protein and carbohydrates. These foods could include yogurt, graham crackers with peanut butter and juice, fruit, or a sports drink with fruit and cheese. In this case, cheese is the ultimate source of fats that are essential for athletes to keep up with the exercises and generate muscle mass. Soft drinks also act as reliable sources of water or rehydration that helps maintain the water levels of athletes during sports events, competitions, and exercise sessions. A well-balanced diet is essential for growing athletes to maintain proper growth and optimize performance in athletic endeavors. An ideal diet comprises 45% to 65% 32 carbohydrates, 10% to 30% protein, and 25% to 35% fat. Fluids are essential for maintaining hydration and should be consumed before, during, and after athletic events to prevent dehydration. The timing of food consumption is critical to optimizing performance. Meals should be eaten at least 3 hours before exercise, and snacks should be eaten 1 to 2 hours before activity. Recovery foods should be consumed within 30 min of exercise and again within 1 hour to 2 hours of activity to allow muscles to rebuild and ensure proper recovery. Conclusion Energy levels, recovery times, strength, endurance, and general health are all impacted by nutrition, which is why it is so crucial to sports performance. At first, we will examine how a healthy diet gives athletes the energy they need to compete and train at their optimal levels. For any athletic performance, an in-depth understanding of the timing of nutrients is essential. Timing one’s nutritional intake has a significant effect on performance. Pre-event nutrition ensures athletes have enough energy for practice or competition, and post-event nutrition promotes muscle solubility, glycogen resupply, and general recovery. To undertake an informed research study, I have mainly discussed my sports, cross country and track, as I am more knowledgeable about them. Intense training has been shown to momentarily suppress the immune system, which increases an athlete’s susceptibility to disease, at least in my experience with endurance sports. An appropriate energy intake is the cornerstone of the athlete’s diet since it supports optimal body function, determines the capacity for intake of macronutrients and micronutrients, and manipulates body composition. Generally, an athlete’s diet should be customized according to their sport, training schedule, desired body composition, and dietary requirements. Athletes may create a dietary plan that promotes their general health and well-being and maximizes performance by working with a certified sports nutritionist. 33 References Thomas, T., Burke, L. M., & Erdman, K. A. (March 2016). Nutrition and athletic performance: Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. mss50185 543..568 (vevu.hr). Abbey, E. L. (April 2022). Nutrition practices and knowledge among NCAA Division III football players: Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1). Full article: Nutrition practices and knowledge among NCAA Division III football players (tandfonline.com) Lee, E. 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